4
In underground development and shaft works that
utilize grout, concrete, and/or shotcrete for ground sup-
port, residual ammonia in the mine water is the causation
for the presence of airborne ammonia fume in the work
area. Although ammonia fume is not specifically hazard-
ous to miners, it is a respiratory and eye irritate that creates
uncomfortable working conditions.
An explosive with significantly reduced quantities of
ammonia nitrate and/or other nitrates has the potential to
reduce mine wastewater treatment costs, marine degrada-
tion, and improve working conditions.
Reduction in Carbon Dioxide and Greenhouse Gas
(GHG) Intensity
Today, environmental issues are shaping the strategic
agenda across various industries. Most global mineral
resource, construction houses, and explosive manufacturers
have publicly announced their ESG carbon reduction com-
mitments in support of COP26 Net Zero 2050.
Hydrogen peroxide explosives offer a significant reduc-
tion in total carbon emission as compared to nitrate based
explosives. The production of ammonium nitrate (AN)
emulsion is energy-intensive and not carbon neutral. Based
on the EU Average and for the oxidizer phase only, 1 kg
of AN emulsion emits 2.3 kg of CO2 as compared to the
production of hydrogen peroxide emulsion that results in
0.23 kg [0.50 lb] of CO2. This is a difference of 90%.
Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide (N2O)
are the three main greenhouse gases. The 100-year global
warming potential (GWP) of a gas is used to determine
its CO2 equivalent (CO2e). It is estimated carbon dioxide
persists in the atmosphere for 300 to 1000 years, trapping
heat and contributing to atmospheric warming. Nitrous
oxide (N2O) has an CO2e of 265–298 times that of carbon
dioxide. In other words, releasing 1 kg [2.2 lb] of nitrous
oxide is equivalent to releasing 265–298 kg [585–657 lb]
of carbon dioxide.
Regarding explosives, nitrous oxide is generated as a
byproduct of producing nitric acid used to manufacture
ammonium nitrate. One source indicates the average nitric
acid plant releases 6 to 9 kg [13 to 20 lb] of nitrous oxide
(N2O) per tonne of nitric acid produced, and this equals
1.6 to 2.7 tonnes [1.8 to 3.0 short tons] of CO2e. It is
reported that the 2022 global market for nitric acid was
57 million tonnes [62.7 million sh.t], with 77% [43.9 Mt,
48.3 M sh.t] of that being used to make ammonium and
calcium nitrate, of which 10 to 15% [4.4 to 6.6 Mt, 4.8
to 7.3 sh.t] was used to make explosives. Accordingly, then
somewhere between 7.0 and 17.7 Mt [7.7 and 19.5 sh.t]
of CO2e was released to the atmosphere to manufacture
nitrates for explosives. Global man-made CO2e emis-
sions are reported to be on the order of 50 billion tonnes
[55.1 billion sh.t]. If the number follow, then nitrate based
explosives manufacture contributes between 0.014% and
0.035% to the global CO2e total.
Interestingly, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is not a signifi-
cant GHG and is primarily a pollutant of concern in urban
areas that is associated with respiratory ailments.
ADVANCES AND RESEARCH IN
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE EXPLOSIVES
In 2004, Baker representing Secretary of Navy Patents,
broadly and comprehensively describes the idea of hydro-
gen peroxide-based emulsion explosives as an alternative to
nitrate based emulsion explosives.
With respect to the first three key drivers above, Miguel
Araos and Italo Onederra, Queensland University research-
ers working alongside the Australia Coal Association
Research Program (ACARP), made strides in exploring the
potential of hydrogen peroxide as an alternative oxidizer
to ammonium nitrate in explosives. From their work, the
potential to entirely remove AN from explosives, and thus
solve issues with NOx fume generation and nitrate con-
tamination in mine water were recognized. Gel composi-
tions of hydrogen peroxide plus hydrated calcium nitrate or
sodium nitrate looked to be an early promising alternative
to AN only based products. Sensitization by GMBs (glass
micro-balloons), EPS (expanded polystyrene), and gassing
were evaluated. Publications and presentations from 2013
through 2019 describe the lab and field testing of hydrogen
peroxide gel explosive compositions. None of the hydrogen
peroxide gels exited the lab and pilot testing to reach com-
mercial application.
In recent times, efforts have shifted towards the devel-
opment of hydrogen peroxide-based explosives that closely
resemble the manufacture, handling, storage, and delivery
systems of today’s two-phase nitrate salts and fuel-based
emulsions. Essentially, chemically stabilized hydrogen per-
oxide ranging in concentrations from 50% to 80% replaces
ammonium nitrate as the oxidizer in the emulsion.
Recent lab research into hydrogen peroxide-based
emulsions conducted by Mining 3 is reported by Kettle
and team to the ACARP in 2021. Reported experiments
include examination of stabilizers, emulsifiers, and fuels to
extend hydrogen peroxide emulsion storage time and resis-
tance to auto-sensitization. Computer generated theoretical
energy and velocity of detonations are presented, along with
predictive modelling of hydrogen peroxide explosive ver-
sus ground reactivity. This work also describes preliminary
In underground development and shaft works that
utilize grout, concrete, and/or shotcrete for ground sup-
port, residual ammonia in the mine water is the causation
for the presence of airborne ammonia fume in the work
area. Although ammonia fume is not specifically hazard-
ous to miners, it is a respiratory and eye irritate that creates
uncomfortable working conditions.
An explosive with significantly reduced quantities of
ammonia nitrate and/or other nitrates has the potential to
reduce mine wastewater treatment costs, marine degrada-
tion, and improve working conditions.
Reduction in Carbon Dioxide and Greenhouse Gas
(GHG) Intensity
Today, environmental issues are shaping the strategic
agenda across various industries. Most global mineral
resource, construction houses, and explosive manufacturers
have publicly announced their ESG carbon reduction com-
mitments in support of COP26 Net Zero 2050.
Hydrogen peroxide explosives offer a significant reduc-
tion in total carbon emission as compared to nitrate based
explosives. The production of ammonium nitrate (AN)
emulsion is energy-intensive and not carbon neutral. Based
on the EU Average and for the oxidizer phase only, 1 kg
of AN emulsion emits 2.3 kg of CO2 as compared to the
production of hydrogen peroxide emulsion that results in
0.23 kg [0.50 lb] of CO2. This is a difference of 90%.
Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide (N2O)
are the three main greenhouse gases. The 100-year global
warming potential (GWP) of a gas is used to determine
its CO2 equivalent (CO2e). It is estimated carbon dioxide
persists in the atmosphere for 300 to 1000 years, trapping
heat and contributing to atmospheric warming. Nitrous
oxide (N2O) has an CO2e of 265–298 times that of carbon
dioxide. In other words, releasing 1 kg [2.2 lb] of nitrous
oxide is equivalent to releasing 265–298 kg [585–657 lb]
of carbon dioxide.
Regarding explosives, nitrous oxide is generated as a
byproduct of producing nitric acid used to manufacture
ammonium nitrate. One source indicates the average nitric
acid plant releases 6 to 9 kg [13 to 20 lb] of nitrous oxide
(N2O) per tonne of nitric acid produced, and this equals
1.6 to 2.7 tonnes [1.8 to 3.0 short tons] of CO2e. It is
reported that the 2022 global market for nitric acid was
57 million tonnes [62.7 million sh.t], with 77% [43.9 Mt,
48.3 M sh.t] of that being used to make ammonium and
calcium nitrate, of which 10 to 15% [4.4 to 6.6 Mt, 4.8
to 7.3 sh.t] was used to make explosives. Accordingly, then
somewhere between 7.0 and 17.7 Mt [7.7 and 19.5 sh.t]
of CO2e was released to the atmosphere to manufacture
nitrates for explosives. Global man-made CO2e emis-
sions are reported to be on the order of 50 billion tonnes
[55.1 billion sh.t]. If the number follow, then nitrate based
explosives manufacture contributes between 0.014% and
0.035% to the global CO2e total.
Interestingly, nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is not a signifi-
cant GHG and is primarily a pollutant of concern in urban
areas that is associated with respiratory ailments.
ADVANCES AND RESEARCH IN
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE EXPLOSIVES
In 2004, Baker representing Secretary of Navy Patents,
broadly and comprehensively describes the idea of hydro-
gen peroxide-based emulsion explosives as an alternative to
nitrate based emulsion explosives.
With respect to the first three key drivers above, Miguel
Araos and Italo Onederra, Queensland University research-
ers working alongside the Australia Coal Association
Research Program (ACARP), made strides in exploring the
potential of hydrogen peroxide as an alternative oxidizer
to ammonium nitrate in explosives. From their work, the
potential to entirely remove AN from explosives, and thus
solve issues with NOx fume generation and nitrate con-
tamination in mine water were recognized. Gel composi-
tions of hydrogen peroxide plus hydrated calcium nitrate or
sodium nitrate looked to be an early promising alternative
to AN only based products. Sensitization by GMBs (glass
micro-balloons), EPS (expanded polystyrene), and gassing
were evaluated. Publications and presentations from 2013
through 2019 describe the lab and field testing of hydrogen
peroxide gel explosive compositions. None of the hydrogen
peroxide gels exited the lab and pilot testing to reach com-
mercial application.
In recent times, efforts have shifted towards the devel-
opment of hydrogen peroxide-based explosives that closely
resemble the manufacture, handling, storage, and delivery
systems of today’s two-phase nitrate salts and fuel-based
emulsions. Essentially, chemically stabilized hydrogen per-
oxide ranging in concentrations from 50% to 80% replaces
ammonium nitrate as the oxidizer in the emulsion.
Recent lab research into hydrogen peroxide-based
emulsions conducted by Mining 3 is reported by Kettle
and team to the ACARP in 2021. Reported experiments
include examination of stabilizers, emulsifiers, and fuels to
extend hydrogen peroxide emulsion storage time and resis-
tance to auto-sensitization. Computer generated theoretical
energy and velocity of detonations are presented, along with
predictive modelling of hydrogen peroxide explosive ver-
sus ground reactivity. This work also describes preliminary