16 XXXI International Mineral Processing Congress 2024 Proceedings/Washington, DC/Sep 29–Oct 3
mining and processing stages can be more energy inten-
sive than smelting when considering the full life cycle of
refined copper. At the same time, for high Cu ore grades
(3.0% Cu), smelting and refining are the most energy-
intensive step, thus becoming a significant contributor
to life cycle environmental impacts (LCEIs). Kulczycka
et al. (2015) also analyzed energy intensity of each indi-
vidual process (by average percentage from 2003–2013)
reporting: mining 36% smelting and refining 34% and
processing (including management of tailings waste) 30%.
Targeting the largest greenhouse gas contributor, smelting
is seen to be the greatest priority including primary loca-
tions in Europe (European Copper Institute, 2023) with
an expectation that about 45% decarbonization is achiev-
able (Rocky Mountain Institute, 2022 Kulczycka et al,
2015) representing an overall emission intensity reduction
for copper production of 20–30% at best. But this should
be the immediate goal as new technologies offer significant
further achievements. Consortia working on decarboniza-
tion of industrial clusters report similar appetite with 45%
reductions being targeted as the first waypoint, so to speak
(Industrial Decarbonization Research and Innovation
Centre team, 2024). The advanced operations at Escondida,
which is a joint venture among BHP, Rio Tinto, and JECO
Corp., represent best practice in many areas, especially
its projection to function on 100% renewable energy by
the mid 2020s. Integrated systems are being deployed to
achieve this target, including carbon capture and storage,
displacement of diesel consumption in stationary equip-
ment, zero-emission thermo-solar and electric boilers
solution-based heat resources, and transition to a wholly
electric truck fleet. The relative impact of such innovations
and especially the 100% utilization of renewable energy has
massive impact on dwarfs’ efforts at optimizing individual
unit operations in minerals processing.
Copper processing ‘Just Profit Increment’?
The concept of “Just Profit Increment” in copper process-
ing underscores the potential for achieving profitability
through sustainable practices. By proactively embracing
technological innovations, for example, adopting best avail-
able smelting technologies can reduce energy consumption
in copper smelting from the global average of 3.83 MWh/t
Cu to as low as 1.75 MWh/t Cu, indicating substantial
energy savings and cost reductions (Saygin et al., 2010). The
mining sector can lead, and could be articulating its leader-
ship, to the benefit of other sectors even more strongly. A
further live example is in how the large copper plants can
be first movers in whole mine site provision of renewable
energy through integrated approaches involving solar and
new energy storage technologies. For example, Rio Tinto’s
investment partnership in cryogenic energy storage in the
UK (Highview Power, 2024) which is driving advanced
testing and proof of concept that can be adopted by wider
society and mine sites to provide both utilities for power
and cold.
SUSTAINABILITY IN LITHIUM
PRODUCTION
Demand
Global demand for lithium-ion batteries is expected to soar
during the next decade, with an increased output from 0.7
TWh in 2022 to about 4.7 TWh by 2030, which accounts
for a steady 27% annual compounded growth. 95% of this
demand, around 4.3 TWh, is attributed solely to the pro-
duction of batteries for mobility applications such as elec-
tric vehicles, e-bikes, electrification of tools, energy-storage
systems and other battery-intensive applications. Back in
2015 however, less than 30% of lithium demand was for
battery production with the bulk split between ceramic and
glasses (35%) and other industrial uses (35%). According
to S&P Global Market Intelligence (Ribeiro, H. and Yuen,
M., 2022), 84% of all lithium produced is expected to be
used in electric vehicles, energy storage systems, and por-
table electronics by 2025. Fast-forward to 2030, the total
demand is expected to increase exponentially thus reach-
ing 3.3 to 3.8 Mt Lithium Carbonate Equivalent (LCE)
(Azevedo, 2022) with batteries projected to account for
95% of their use. As lithium is often found in various
chemical forms, LCE is commonly used in the reporting
of lithium resources for more accurate comparison. In
terms of the current very rapid expansion of provision for
resources, if continued, there is likely to be a gap of 20%
compared to demand. This adds further pressure to acquir-
ers of lithium related reserves and acceleration of innovative
ways to mine and refine it.
In 2021, 98% of the total production originated from
Australia, Latin America and China. Australian lithium
is primarily extracted from hard-rock mines for the min-
eral ‘spodumene,’ whereas Latin America obtains most
of its metal from the Salar de Atacama, touted as the
world’s richest lithium brine deposits. China in contrast,
is strengthening its dominance in the entire supply chain
by developing local mines and battery refining capacities,
while also actively acquiring lithium assets in the former
countries mentioned including Canada, totaling up to
$5.6 billion. Some data on global distribution of lithium
is shown in Figure 8. Currently, China could account for
45% of the total demand for lithium in 2025 and 40%
in 2030, due to its maturity throughout the entire battery
mining and processing stages can be more energy inten-
sive than smelting when considering the full life cycle of
refined copper. At the same time, for high Cu ore grades
(3.0% Cu), smelting and refining are the most energy-
intensive step, thus becoming a significant contributor
to life cycle environmental impacts (LCEIs). Kulczycka
et al. (2015) also analyzed energy intensity of each indi-
vidual process (by average percentage from 2003–2013)
reporting: mining 36% smelting and refining 34% and
processing (including management of tailings waste) 30%.
Targeting the largest greenhouse gas contributor, smelting
is seen to be the greatest priority including primary loca-
tions in Europe (European Copper Institute, 2023) with
an expectation that about 45% decarbonization is achiev-
able (Rocky Mountain Institute, 2022 Kulczycka et al,
2015) representing an overall emission intensity reduction
for copper production of 20–30% at best. But this should
be the immediate goal as new technologies offer significant
further achievements. Consortia working on decarboniza-
tion of industrial clusters report similar appetite with 45%
reductions being targeted as the first waypoint, so to speak
(Industrial Decarbonization Research and Innovation
Centre team, 2024). The advanced operations at Escondida,
which is a joint venture among BHP, Rio Tinto, and JECO
Corp., represent best practice in many areas, especially
its projection to function on 100% renewable energy by
the mid 2020s. Integrated systems are being deployed to
achieve this target, including carbon capture and storage,
displacement of diesel consumption in stationary equip-
ment, zero-emission thermo-solar and electric boilers
solution-based heat resources, and transition to a wholly
electric truck fleet. The relative impact of such innovations
and especially the 100% utilization of renewable energy has
massive impact on dwarfs’ efforts at optimizing individual
unit operations in minerals processing.
Copper processing ‘Just Profit Increment’?
The concept of “Just Profit Increment” in copper process-
ing underscores the potential for achieving profitability
through sustainable practices. By proactively embracing
technological innovations, for example, adopting best avail-
able smelting technologies can reduce energy consumption
in copper smelting from the global average of 3.83 MWh/t
Cu to as low as 1.75 MWh/t Cu, indicating substantial
energy savings and cost reductions (Saygin et al., 2010). The
mining sector can lead, and could be articulating its leader-
ship, to the benefit of other sectors even more strongly. A
further live example is in how the large copper plants can
be first movers in whole mine site provision of renewable
energy through integrated approaches involving solar and
new energy storage technologies. For example, Rio Tinto’s
investment partnership in cryogenic energy storage in the
UK (Highview Power, 2024) which is driving advanced
testing and proof of concept that can be adopted by wider
society and mine sites to provide both utilities for power
and cold.
SUSTAINABILITY IN LITHIUM
PRODUCTION
Demand
Global demand for lithium-ion batteries is expected to soar
during the next decade, with an increased output from 0.7
TWh in 2022 to about 4.7 TWh by 2030, which accounts
for a steady 27% annual compounded growth. 95% of this
demand, around 4.3 TWh, is attributed solely to the pro-
duction of batteries for mobility applications such as elec-
tric vehicles, e-bikes, electrification of tools, energy-storage
systems and other battery-intensive applications. Back in
2015 however, less than 30% of lithium demand was for
battery production with the bulk split between ceramic and
glasses (35%) and other industrial uses (35%). According
to S&P Global Market Intelligence (Ribeiro, H. and Yuen,
M., 2022), 84% of all lithium produced is expected to be
used in electric vehicles, energy storage systems, and por-
table electronics by 2025. Fast-forward to 2030, the total
demand is expected to increase exponentially thus reach-
ing 3.3 to 3.8 Mt Lithium Carbonate Equivalent (LCE)
(Azevedo, 2022) with batteries projected to account for
95% of their use. As lithium is often found in various
chemical forms, LCE is commonly used in the reporting
of lithium resources for more accurate comparison. In
terms of the current very rapid expansion of provision for
resources, if continued, there is likely to be a gap of 20%
compared to demand. This adds further pressure to acquir-
ers of lithium related reserves and acceleration of innovative
ways to mine and refine it.
In 2021, 98% of the total production originated from
Australia, Latin America and China. Australian lithium
is primarily extracted from hard-rock mines for the min-
eral ‘spodumene,’ whereas Latin America obtains most
of its metal from the Salar de Atacama, touted as the
world’s richest lithium brine deposits. China in contrast,
is strengthening its dominance in the entire supply chain
by developing local mines and battery refining capacities,
while also actively acquiring lithium assets in the former
countries mentioned including Canada, totaling up to
$5.6 billion. Some data on global distribution of lithium
is shown in Figure 8. Currently, China could account for
45% of the total demand for lithium in 2025 and 40%
in 2030, due to its maturity throughout the entire battery