XXXI International Mineral Processing Congress 2024 Proceedings/Washington, DC/Sep 29–Oct 3 3357
complex hard rock LPPO ores containing lithium, beryl-
lium, tantalum and tin and methods to extract maximum
value from these resources. Whilst the pegmatite may con-
tain spodumene, lepidolite and other lithium minerals,
spodumene is the most common and simplest to recover
using DMS and flotation.
Beryllium is an important strategic metal and is
highly valued but its metallurgical extraction is complex.
Tantalum, niobium and tin can be recovered using gravity
and flotation and, usually, these are by products with lower
recoveries.
The historical ore processing by the Soviets in Eastern
Kazakhstan was by gravity and flotation to produce a mixed
concentrate before being shipped to Russia. They were
principally seeking tin, tantalum and beryllium. They did
not recover the lithium or rare earths as there was no mar-
ket for lithium at that time. Also, the current technology at
the time was very dated and much better technology can
now be employed.
GEOLOGICAL OCURRENCE
Pegmatites form from waters that separate from a magma in
the late stages of crystallization this activity often occurs in
small pockets along the margins of a batholith. Pegmatite
can also form in fractures that develop on the margins of
the batholith. This is how pegmatite dikes are formed.
The rare-element pegmatites have anomalous con-
tents of beryllium, lithium, tantalum, tin and cvaesium.
Beryllium is most commonly present as beryl, lithium
occurs as spodumene or lepidolite, tantalum and niobium
as columbite–tantalite, tin as cassiterite and caesium as pol-
lucite. These occur in Canada (Dimell, 2005), (Western
Australia, China, Eastern Kazakhstan, Ireland (Barros,
2022), Brazil, USA, Africa (Goodenough, 2021) and other
parts of the world, as indicated in Figure 1.
8
9
12
11
10
16
13
7
1 2
15 14
3
4
5
6
34
33 35
36
51
50
52
53
40
38
39
41
42
43
44
45 46
48
49
66
67
37
47
55
54
56
58
59
60
62
65
64
63
61
57
70
71
72 73
74
75
76
68
69
82 83 86
84
87
88
77
81 85
79
80
78
Kings Valley, USA
Silver Peak, USA
Salton Sea, USA
Sonora, Mexico
Clayton North, USA
McDermitt, USA
Tanco, Canada
Magnolia, USA
Separation Rapids, Canada
Kings Mountain, USA
James Bay, Canada
Rose, Canada
Whabouchi, Canada
Val-d’Or, Canada
Mina da Cachoeira, Brazil
Mibra, Brazil
Jequitinhonha, Brazil
Volta Grande, Brazil
Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia
Salar del Hombre Muerto (3 projects), Argentina
Salar del Rincón (3 projects), Argentina
Salar de Olaroz, Argentina
Salar de Caucharí (2 projects), Argentina
51 Alijó, Portugal
Mina do Barroso (and 3 others), Portugal
Valdeflórez/San José, Spain
Alberta I, Spain
United Downs, United Kingdom
Aclare, Ireland
St Austell, United Kingdom
Chédeville (and 4 others), France
Zinnwald (and 4 others), Germany
Cinovec, Czech Republic
Wolfsberg, Austria
Jadar, Serbia
Polokhovskoe (and 2 others), Ukraine
Länttä (and 5 others), Finland
Goulamina, Mali
Bougouni, Mali
Ewoyaa, Ghana
Manono-Kitotolo, Democratic Republic of Congo
Uis, Namibia
Karibib, Namibia
Orange River Area, South Africa
Kamativi, Zimbabwe
Arcadia, Zimbabwe
Parun area, Afghanistan
Bikita, Zimbabwe
Zulu, Zimbabwe
Kenticha, Ethiopia
Zhabuye Salt Lake, China
Nuristan area, Afghanistan
Dangxiongcuo, China
East Taiji Nai’er, China
Qinghai Salt Lake, China
Sichuan Aba, China
Maerkang, China
Jiajika, China
Ningdu, China
Greenbushes, Australia
Mount Holland, Australia
Mount Cattlin, Australia
Bald Hill, Australia
Buldania, Australia
Mount Marion, Australia
Ohaaki, New Zealand
Finniss, Australia
Pilgangoora, Australia
Wodgina, Australia
Kathleen Valley, Australia
9
Boron, USA 11
Bonnie Claire, USA 10
12
16
Falchani, Peru 17
13
7
1
14
2
15
3
4
5
6
32
31
33
34
18
Salar de Pastos Grandes, Bolivia
Salar de Coipasa, Bolivia
19
30
25
23
24
49
48
50
8
75
37
39
40
41
42
Rittershoffen, France
Upper Rhine Valley, Germany 44
43
45
46
47
35
53
52
54
56
57
58
59
60
67
62
63
64
65
66
61
55
68
69
West Taiji Nai’er, China 70
71
72
73
74
38 Glenbuchat, United Kingdom
36
82
81
83
85
86
84
88
Narraburra, Australia 87
77
78
79
80
76
Li mine
Deposit/occurrence
Continental brine
Geothermal and oilfield brine
Volcano-sedimentary
Pegmatite and granite
Salar de Aguilera, Chile
Salar de Pedernales, Chile
Salar de Maricunga, Chile
Salar de Pozuelos, Argentina
Salar de Pastos Grandes, Argentina
Salar de Ratones, Argentina
Salar de Diablillos, Argentina
20
Salar de Atacama (2 operators), Chile 21
22
26
27
29
28
How to cite: Shaw, R.A. (2021) Global lithium (Li) mines, deposits and occurrences (November 2021). British Geological Survey.
17
19
18
20 21
22
23
24
28
29 31
30
32
25
27
26
Figure 1. Global lithium Deposits (v)
complex hard rock LPPO ores containing lithium, beryl-
lium, tantalum and tin and methods to extract maximum
value from these resources. Whilst the pegmatite may con-
tain spodumene, lepidolite and other lithium minerals,
spodumene is the most common and simplest to recover
using DMS and flotation.
Beryllium is an important strategic metal and is
highly valued but its metallurgical extraction is complex.
Tantalum, niobium and tin can be recovered using gravity
and flotation and, usually, these are by products with lower
recoveries.
The historical ore processing by the Soviets in Eastern
Kazakhstan was by gravity and flotation to produce a mixed
concentrate before being shipped to Russia. They were
principally seeking tin, tantalum and beryllium. They did
not recover the lithium or rare earths as there was no mar-
ket for lithium at that time. Also, the current technology at
the time was very dated and much better technology can
now be employed.
GEOLOGICAL OCURRENCE
Pegmatites form from waters that separate from a magma in
the late stages of crystallization this activity often occurs in
small pockets along the margins of a batholith. Pegmatite
can also form in fractures that develop on the margins of
the batholith. This is how pegmatite dikes are formed.
The rare-element pegmatites have anomalous con-
tents of beryllium, lithium, tantalum, tin and cvaesium.
Beryllium is most commonly present as beryl, lithium
occurs as spodumene or lepidolite, tantalum and niobium
as columbite–tantalite, tin as cassiterite and caesium as pol-
lucite. These occur in Canada (Dimell, 2005), (Western
Australia, China, Eastern Kazakhstan, Ireland (Barros,
2022), Brazil, USA, Africa (Goodenough, 2021) and other
parts of the world, as indicated in Figure 1.
8
9
12
11
10
16
13
7
1 2
15 14
3
4
5
6
34
33 35
36
51
50
52
53
40
38
39
41
42
43
44
45 46
48
49
66
67
37
47
55
54
56
58
59
60
62
65
64
63
61
57
70
71
72 73
74
75
76
68
69
82 83 86
84
87
88
77
81 85
79
80
78
Kings Valley, USA
Silver Peak, USA
Salton Sea, USA
Sonora, Mexico
Clayton North, USA
McDermitt, USA
Tanco, Canada
Magnolia, USA
Separation Rapids, Canada
Kings Mountain, USA
James Bay, Canada
Rose, Canada
Whabouchi, Canada
Val-d’Or, Canada
Mina da Cachoeira, Brazil
Mibra, Brazil
Jequitinhonha, Brazil
Volta Grande, Brazil
Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia
Salar del Hombre Muerto (3 projects), Argentina
Salar del Rincón (3 projects), Argentina
Salar de Olaroz, Argentina
Salar de Caucharí (2 projects), Argentina
51 Alijó, Portugal
Mina do Barroso (and 3 others), Portugal
Valdeflórez/San José, Spain
Alberta I, Spain
United Downs, United Kingdom
Aclare, Ireland
St Austell, United Kingdom
Chédeville (and 4 others), France
Zinnwald (and 4 others), Germany
Cinovec, Czech Republic
Wolfsberg, Austria
Jadar, Serbia
Polokhovskoe (and 2 others), Ukraine
Länttä (and 5 others), Finland
Goulamina, Mali
Bougouni, Mali
Ewoyaa, Ghana
Manono-Kitotolo, Democratic Republic of Congo
Uis, Namibia
Karibib, Namibia
Orange River Area, South Africa
Kamativi, Zimbabwe
Arcadia, Zimbabwe
Parun area, Afghanistan
Bikita, Zimbabwe
Zulu, Zimbabwe
Kenticha, Ethiopia
Zhabuye Salt Lake, China
Nuristan area, Afghanistan
Dangxiongcuo, China
East Taiji Nai’er, China
Qinghai Salt Lake, China
Sichuan Aba, China
Maerkang, China
Jiajika, China
Ningdu, China
Greenbushes, Australia
Mount Holland, Australia
Mount Cattlin, Australia
Bald Hill, Australia
Buldania, Australia
Mount Marion, Australia
Ohaaki, New Zealand
Finniss, Australia
Pilgangoora, Australia
Wodgina, Australia
Kathleen Valley, Australia
9
Boron, USA 11
Bonnie Claire, USA 10
12
16
Falchani, Peru 17
13
7
1
14
2
15
3
4
5
6
32
31
33
34
18
Salar de Pastos Grandes, Bolivia
Salar de Coipasa, Bolivia
19
30
25
23
24
49
48
50
8
75
37
39
40
41
42
Rittershoffen, France
Upper Rhine Valley, Germany 44
43
45
46
47
35
53
52
54
56
57
58
59
60
67
62
63
64
65
66
61
55
68
69
West Taiji Nai’er, China 70
71
72
73
74
38 Glenbuchat, United Kingdom
36
82
81
83
85
86
84
88
Narraburra, Australia 87
77
78
79
80
76
Li mine
Deposit/occurrence
Continental brine
Geothermal and oilfield brine
Volcano-sedimentary
Pegmatite and granite
Salar de Aguilera, Chile
Salar de Pedernales, Chile
Salar de Maricunga, Chile
Salar de Pozuelos, Argentina
Salar de Pastos Grandes, Argentina
Salar de Ratones, Argentina
Salar de Diablillos, Argentina
20
Salar de Atacama (2 operators), Chile 21
22
26
27
29
28
How to cite: Shaw, R.A. (2021) Global lithium (Li) mines, deposits and occurrences (November 2021). British Geological Survey.
17
19
18
20 21
22
23
24
28
29 31
30
32
25
27
26
Figure 1. Global lithium Deposits (v)