XXXI International Mineral Processing Congress 2024 Proceedings/Washington, DC/Sep 29–Oct 3 3285
The aim is to find the recycling solution that allows for a
more circular and sustainable solution. It is important to
realize that the supply of primary minerals is not infinite
and will require a more focused approach to urban min-
ing or recycling to be able to supply the necessary battery
minerals demand.
Table 1 illustrates a partial collection of commercial
operations by country for recycling activities. As can be
seen there is no one dominant method or processing route.
It is worth noting that with the majority of LIB units being
produced in Asia, there are a number of technically mature
recycling operations located in Asia (Pražanová et al.,
2022). Europe has a large number of recycling operations
due to various EU statutory requirements for LIB recycling
and its impact on availability of critical minerals (Doose et
al., 2021).
A key ingredient to the recycling of EOL LIB units
is the need to use proven processing technology so as to
avoid the pitfalls of having to overcome first of a kind tech-
nology risks when defining new projects. Here technology
readiness level (TRL) is a useful metric for assessing the
risk associated with recycling technology pathways. Table 2
illustrates at a high level where some of the EOL LIB recy-
cling processes are with respect to technological maturity.
The list in Table 2 is by no means exhaustive.
FEED PREPARATION OF END OF LIFE
BATTERIES
The recovery of the valuable components from spent LIB
units is typically associated with the cathode. The cathode
materials consist of a mix of nickel, manganese, cobalt,
lithium and iron. The anode materials are typically graph-
ite based with a doping agent such as silicon added. There
are a series of activities that form the deconstruction of the
LIB units to allow the downstream treatment of the LIB
black mass (Or et al., 2020). Figure 1 illustrates the flow of
Table 1. Examples of major LIBs recycling facilities worldwide
Company Country Process Products
Accurec Germany Pyrometallurgy Co alloy, Li
2 CO3
Albemarle USA Hydrometallurgical Li2CO3
AkkureSer Boliden Finland Mechanical (AS), Copper refining
(Boliden)
Black Mass
Battery Resources USA Hydrometallurgical —
BatRec Switzerland Mechanical, pyrometallurgical Material fractures
Brunp China Hydrometallurgical —
Duesenfeld Germany Mechanical, hydrometallurgical Co, Ni, Mn (active mat.),
electrolyte
Eramet France Pyrometallurgy Ferro-Ni/Ferro-Mn alloy
Farasis Energy USA Mechanical &Direct Recycling Graphite and LiMOx
GEM China Hydrometallurgical —
GHTECH China Hydrometallurgical —
Inmetco USA Pyrometallurgical —
Highpower International China Hydrometallurgical —
Neometals Austria Mechanical, hydrometallurgical Co, Ni, Cu, Li, Gr
(Industrial Grade)
OnTo Technology USA Mechanical —
Recupyl France Mechanical, hydrometallurgical Mn, Co, Li, Ni
(Industrial grade)
Redux Germany, Austria Mechanical, hydrometallurgical Co, Ni, Cu, Li, Gr
(lower quality)
Retriev Canada, USA Mechanical, hydrometallurgical —
SNAM France Pyrometallurgy Black mass, Co, Cu, Ni
Sony/Sumitomo Japan Pyrometallurgical —
SungEel HiTech South Korea Hydrometallurgical —
TES-AMM Singapore Hydrometallurgical —
Umicore Belgium Pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy Co, Ni, Cu
(chemical form)
uRecycle Sweden Mechanical Black mass
The aim is to find the recycling solution that allows for a
more circular and sustainable solution. It is important to
realize that the supply of primary minerals is not infinite
and will require a more focused approach to urban min-
ing or recycling to be able to supply the necessary battery
minerals demand.
Table 1 illustrates a partial collection of commercial
operations by country for recycling activities. As can be
seen there is no one dominant method or processing route.
It is worth noting that with the majority of LIB units being
produced in Asia, there are a number of technically mature
recycling operations located in Asia (Pražanová et al.,
2022). Europe has a large number of recycling operations
due to various EU statutory requirements for LIB recycling
and its impact on availability of critical minerals (Doose et
al., 2021).
A key ingredient to the recycling of EOL LIB units
is the need to use proven processing technology so as to
avoid the pitfalls of having to overcome first of a kind tech-
nology risks when defining new projects. Here technology
readiness level (TRL) is a useful metric for assessing the
risk associated with recycling technology pathways. Table 2
illustrates at a high level where some of the EOL LIB recy-
cling processes are with respect to technological maturity.
The list in Table 2 is by no means exhaustive.
FEED PREPARATION OF END OF LIFE
BATTERIES
The recovery of the valuable components from spent LIB
units is typically associated with the cathode. The cathode
materials consist of a mix of nickel, manganese, cobalt,
lithium and iron. The anode materials are typically graph-
ite based with a doping agent such as silicon added. There
are a series of activities that form the deconstruction of the
LIB units to allow the downstream treatment of the LIB
black mass (Or et al., 2020). Figure 1 illustrates the flow of
Table 1. Examples of major LIBs recycling facilities worldwide
Company Country Process Products
Accurec Germany Pyrometallurgy Co alloy, Li
2 CO3
Albemarle USA Hydrometallurgical Li2CO3
AkkureSer Boliden Finland Mechanical (AS), Copper refining
(Boliden)
Black Mass
Battery Resources USA Hydrometallurgical —
BatRec Switzerland Mechanical, pyrometallurgical Material fractures
Brunp China Hydrometallurgical —
Duesenfeld Germany Mechanical, hydrometallurgical Co, Ni, Mn (active mat.),
electrolyte
Eramet France Pyrometallurgy Ferro-Ni/Ferro-Mn alloy
Farasis Energy USA Mechanical &Direct Recycling Graphite and LiMOx
GEM China Hydrometallurgical —
GHTECH China Hydrometallurgical —
Inmetco USA Pyrometallurgical —
Highpower International China Hydrometallurgical —
Neometals Austria Mechanical, hydrometallurgical Co, Ni, Cu, Li, Gr
(Industrial Grade)
OnTo Technology USA Mechanical —
Recupyl France Mechanical, hydrometallurgical Mn, Co, Li, Ni
(Industrial grade)
Redux Germany, Austria Mechanical, hydrometallurgical Co, Ni, Cu, Li, Gr
(lower quality)
Retriev Canada, USA Mechanical, hydrometallurgical —
SNAM France Pyrometallurgy Black mass, Co, Cu, Ni
Sony/Sumitomo Japan Pyrometallurgical —
SungEel HiTech South Korea Hydrometallurgical —
TES-AMM Singapore Hydrometallurgical —
Umicore Belgium Pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy Co, Ni, Cu
(chemical form)
uRecycle Sweden Mechanical Black mass