XXXI International Mineral Processing Congress 2024 Proceedings/Washington, DC/Sep 29–Oct 3 3267
materials of different material types, the individual compo-
nents sometimes have very different mechanical properties,
for example fracture mechanical properties. An example of
this is the combination of metal oxide (brittle) with thin
metallic foils (ductile) and polymer assemblies (visco-plas-
tic/plastic). All of these technical challenges posed by the
source material must be addressed in the processing of sec-
ondary raw materials in the case of sustainable infrastruc-
ture facilities.
EOL STRUCTURES CONTAINING
ENERGY MATERIAL FOR RECYCLING
The end-of-life (EoL) setups containing energy materials in
large quantities are batteries and electrolyzers. Both setups
are characterized by as multi-layer structure, either in stacks
(electrolyzers) or in rolls (batteries), where functional layers
are organized in a repeating order.
The most prominent new battery type, which entered
the marked in the last two decades are lithium-ion batteries
(LIB). A LIB-system comprises interconnected individual
cells, each containing a positive electrode (cathode) of alu-
minum foil (Al) coated with lithium metal oxide contain-
ing a mixture of nickel, (Ni), cobalt (Co), aluminum (Al),
manganese (Mn) or iron (Fe) and phosphorous (P), a nega-
tive electrode (anode) of copper foil (Cu) typically made
of graphite, and a polymeric separator. The electrodes are
immersed in an organic electrolyte solution containing lith-
ium salts. During discharge, lithium ions move from the
anode to the cathode through the electrolyte, generating
electrical current. During charging, this process reverses.
Thus, in the discharged state the mobile lithium is con-
centrated in the cathode material. The polymeric separator
prevents direct contact between the electrodes, avoiding the
risk of short circuits. The entire assembly is enclosed in a
protective casing consisting either of robust steel or alumi-
num sheets (round cells, prismatic cells) or of an aluminum
composite foil (pouch cell). The composition of batteries
varies between the different designs and manufactures.
A water electrolyzer with a polymer electrolyte mem-
brane (PEM) split water into hydrogen and oxygen foster-
ing catalytic electrochemical reactions. The device consists
of two electrodes, an anode, and a cathode, separated by
the PEM. The anode typically consists of a nano particle
iridium (Ir) catalyst, while the cathode employs a cata-
lyst like platinum (Pt) embedded in carbon black. Some
designs contain ruthenium (Ru) in the anode as well. The
PEM, usually made of a perfluorosulfonic acid polymer,
selectively conducts protons. There are further e.g., tita-
nium layers, i.e., meshes, involved in the stack setup. The
bipolar plates, which provide the macroscopic functionality
consist of titanium (Ti) or of titanium (Ti) coated stainless
steel alloys.
A high-temperature water electrolyzer operates at
elevated temperatures, typically above several 100 degrees
Celsius, offering advantages in efficiency and kinetics and
the electrolysis occurring in the vapor phase. The setup
includes two electrodes, an anode, and a cathode, separated
by an electrolyte. In this case, the electrolyte is mainly a
solid oxide material, like yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ).
The cathode is typically composed of nickel (Ni) with YSZ
or of Ni with gadolinium and cerium oxides (GDC) and
other compatible materials, while the anode may contain
perovskite-based and/or lanthanum (La) and strontium
(Sr) based catalysts (LSCM). Thus, besides Ni, rare earth
elements (REE) are the critical elements driving the func-
tionality of this electrolyzer type.
The energy materials, that provide the functionality
of the systems battery and electrolyzers, occur as fine par-
ticle systems (2 nm Pt catalyst dots to 20 µm spheric
graphite), from which layered structures of below 5 µm
(PEM-electrolyzers) up to above 100 µm (LIB-cathodes)
are manufactured. For mechanical recovery of these func-
tional particles the liberation and separation need both to
address the corresponding fine size scales.
Further materials like WEEE scrap do not predomi-
nantly consist of functional particle systems, but their char-
acteristic size scales are in the same order of magnitude e.g.,
in the single digit micrometer scale and even below.
STRATEGIES FOR RECYCLING OF
MULTI-LAYER STRUCTURES
The design of the systems containing the energy materials
involves several size scales e.g., battery cells (EV-cells: 200g
– 2000 g) are grouped into modules and those finally form
the entire battery pack, which has characteristic dimensions
for electrical vehicles of more than 1 m and a weight of
about 400 kg.
Preparative steps – dismantling
Several steps are required to prepare such large systems to
mechanical recycling, which apply manual or automated
disassembly steps to reduce the characteristic size of the
feed material on the one hand and to remove construc-
tion materials, e.g., steel or aluminum from casings and
electronic components prior to crushing. The disassembly
depth for batteries depends on the size of the modules and
the cells, since there is an economic tradeoff regarding the
manual labor required as well as maximal feed sizes of the
shredders applied.
materials of different material types, the individual compo-
nents sometimes have very different mechanical properties,
for example fracture mechanical properties. An example of
this is the combination of metal oxide (brittle) with thin
metallic foils (ductile) and polymer assemblies (visco-plas-
tic/plastic). All of these technical challenges posed by the
source material must be addressed in the processing of sec-
ondary raw materials in the case of sustainable infrastruc-
ture facilities.
EOL STRUCTURES CONTAINING
ENERGY MATERIAL FOR RECYCLING
The end-of-life (EoL) setups containing energy materials in
large quantities are batteries and electrolyzers. Both setups
are characterized by as multi-layer structure, either in stacks
(electrolyzers) or in rolls (batteries), where functional layers
are organized in a repeating order.
The most prominent new battery type, which entered
the marked in the last two decades are lithium-ion batteries
(LIB). A LIB-system comprises interconnected individual
cells, each containing a positive electrode (cathode) of alu-
minum foil (Al) coated with lithium metal oxide contain-
ing a mixture of nickel, (Ni), cobalt (Co), aluminum (Al),
manganese (Mn) or iron (Fe) and phosphorous (P), a nega-
tive electrode (anode) of copper foil (Cu) typically made
of graphite, and a polymeric separator. The electrodes are
immersed in an organic electrolyte solution containing lith-
ium salts. During discharge, lithium ions move from the
anode to the cathode through the electrolyte, generating
electrical current. During charging, this process reverses.
Thus, in the discharged state the mobile lithium is con-
centrated in the cathode material. The polymeric separator
prevents direct contact between the electrodes, avoiding the
risk of short circuits. The entire assembly is enclosed in a
protective casing consisting either of robust steel or alumi-
num sheets (round cells, prismatic cells) or of an aluminum
composite foil (pouch cell). The composition of batteries
varies between the different designs and manufactures.
A water electrolyzer with a polymer electrolyte mem-
brane (PEM) split water into hydrogen and oxygen foster-
ing catalytic electrochemical reactions. The device consists
of two electrodes, an anode, and a cathode, separated by
the PEM. The anode typically consists of a nano particle
iridium (Ir) catalyst, while the cathode employs a cata-
lyst like platinum (Pt) embedded in carbon black. Some
designs contain ruthenium (Ru) in the anode as well. The
PEM, usually made of a perfluorosulfonic acid polymer,
selectively conducts protons. There are further e.g., tita-
nium layers, i.e., meshes, involved in the stack setup. The
bipolar plates, which provide the macroscopic functionality
consist of titanium (Ti) or of titanium (Ti) coated stainless
steel alloys.
A high-temperature water electrolyzer operates at
elevated temperatures, typically above several 100 degrees
Celsius, offering advantages in efficiency and kinetics and
the electrolysis occurring in the vapor phase. The setup
includes two electrodes, an anode, and a cathode, separated
by an electrolyte. In this case, the electrolyte is mainly a
solid oxide material, like yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ).
The cathode is typically composed of nickel (Ni) with YSZ
or of Ni with gadolinium and cerium oxides (GDC) and
other compatible materials, while the anode may contain
perovskite-based and/or lanthanum (La) and strontium
(Sr) based catalysts (LSCM). Thus, besides Ni, rare earth
elements (REE) are the critical elements driving the func-
tionality of this electrolyzer type.
The energy materials, that provide the functionality
of the systems battery and electrolyzers, occur as fine par-
ticle systems (2 nm Pt catalyst dots to 20 µm spheric
graphite), from which layered structures of below 5 µm
(PEM-electrolyzers) up to above 100 µm (LIB-cathodes)
are manufactured. For mechanical recovery of these func-
tional particles the liberation and separation need both to
address the corresponding fine size scales.
Further materials like WEEE scrap do not predomi-
nantly consist of functional particle systems, but their char-
acteristic size scales are in the same order of magnitude e.g.,
in the single digit micrometer scale and even below.
STRATEGIES FOR RECYCLING OF
MULTI-LAYER STRUCTURES
The design of the systems containing the energy materials
involves several size scales e.g., battery cells (EV-cells: 200g
– 2000 g) are grouped into modules and those finally form
the entire battery pack, which has characteristic dimensions
for electrical vehicles of more than 1 m and a weight of
about 400 kg.
Preparative steps – dismantling
Several steps are required to prepare such large systems to
mechanical recycling, which apply manual or automated
disassembly steps to reduce the characteristic size of the
feed material on the one hand and to remove construc-
tion materials, e.g., steel or aluminum from casings and
electronic components prior to crushing. The disassembly
depth for batteries depends on the size of the modules and
the cells, since there is an economic tradeoff regarding the
manual labor required as well as maximal feed sizes of the
shredders applied.