1200 XXXI International Mineral Processing Congress 2024 Proceedings/Washington, DC/Sep 29–Oct 3
seen the substitution of tellurium catalysts for other materi-
als (George, 2012).
Tellurium’s use in thermoelectricity started in 1822
when the mineral pilsenite (Bi4Te3) was tested for the ther-
moelectric effect (Witting et al., 2019). Bismuth telluride is
still an important thermoelectrical material due to its high
efficiency at room temperature (Goldsmid, 2014 Witting
et al., 2019 Witting et al., 2020). Alloying, doping and the
use of nano technology has seen increased efficiency and the
continued dominance of tellurium in this field (Mamur et
al., 2018 Tritt, 2011). The low availability of bismuth and
tellurium has been a problem for manufacturers restrict-
ing the development and use of tellurium in thermoelectric
devices (Champier, 2017).
The first observation of photoconductivity for tellurium
was in 1875 (Adams, 1876). Early work in photoconductiv-
ity focussed on selenium and it was not until the 1950s that
tellurium was once again of interest (Fritts, 1883 Moss,
1951). It was during this time that the first CdTe cells were
developed using thin CdTe films (Cusano, 1963 Goldstein
&Pensak, 1959 Rappaport, 1959). Efficiencies were low
at 6% (Cusano, 1963) however recent laboratory test work
has shown efficiencies of 22.1% are possible for CdTe thin
film photovoltaic cells (NREL, 2022).
It is the use of tellurium in photovoltaics (solar cells) and
thermoelectrics that is driving the demand for tellurium.
Current Production of Tellurium
Naturally occurring tellurium minerals are generally divided
into native tellurium, tellurides, tellurites and tellurates with
tellurides being the most commonly occurring (Cooper,
1971 Goldfarb et al., 2017 IMA, 2022). Tellurium min-
erals are widely disseminated and do not form orebodies
that are mined for tellurium alone (Hoffmann et al., 2000).
Large quantities are mined as a part of base metal deposits
for copper, nickel and lead as well as gold, silver and plati-
num group metals. The recovery of tellurium, usually as
tellurides, is often incidental.
Most refined tellurium is recovered from anode slimes
produced during the copper refining stage (Backstrom,
2010 Mahmoudi et al., 2020 Schlesinger et al., 2011).
This is an inefficient process as only 4% of the tellurium
present in copper ore reports to the copper anodes, with
90% being rejected in the flotation stage (Josephson,
2016). The tellurium in copper ores is present as telluride
minerals with copper, lead, gold, silver and bismuth tel-
lurides being the most common (Makuei &Senanayake,
2018). If insitu leaching of copper ores is employed as the
primary stage instead of flotation, then there is no recovery
of tellurium to the anode slimes as the tellurium minerals
remain unleached in the ore (Davidson &Lakin, 1973).
The recovery of tellurium from direct mining accounts
for approximately 15% of world production (Anderson,
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
2018
2005
2000
1995
1985
1980
1975
1970
1932
RUBBER METALLURGICAL CHEMICALS/CATALYST PHOTORECEPTOR/THERMOELECTRIC SOLAR OTHER
Figure 1. Uses of tellurium (compiled from USGS sources (Anderson, 2022 George, 2012 Tyler, 1932))
seen the substitution of tellurium catalysts for other materi-
als (George, 2012).
Tellurium’s use in thermoelectricity started in 1822
when the mineral pilsenite (Bi4Te3) was tested for the ther-
moelectric effect (Witting et al., 2019). Bismuth telluride is
still an important thermoelectrical material due to its high
efficiency at room temperature (Goldsmid, 2014 Witting
et al., 2019 Witting et al., 2020). Alloying, doping and the
use of nano technology has seen increased efficiency and the
continued dominance of tellurium in this field (Mamur et
al., 2018 Tritt, 2011). The low availability of bismuth and
tellurium has been a problem for manufacturers restrict-
ing the development and use of tellurium in thermoelectric
devices (Champier, 2017).
The first observation of photoconductivity for tellurium
was in 1875 (Adams, 1876). Early work in photoconductiv-
ity focussed on selenium and it was not until the 1950s that
tellurium was once again of interest (Fritts, 1883 Moss,
1951). It was during this time that the first CdTe cells were
developed using thin CdTe films (Cusano, 1963 Goldstein
&Pensak, 1959 Rappaport, 1959). Efficiencies were low
at 6% (Cusano, 1963) however recent laboratory test work
has shown efficiencies of 22.1% are possible for CdTe thin
film photovoltaic cells (NREL, 2022).
It is the use of tellurium in photovoltaics (solar cells) and
thermoelectrics that is driving the demand for tellurium.
Current Production of Tellurium
Naturally occurring tellurium minerals are generally divided
into native tellurium, tellurides, tellurites and tellurates with
tellurides being the most commonly occurring (Cooper,
1971 Goldfarb et al., 2017 IMA, 2022). Tellurium min-
erals are widely disseminated and do not form orebodies
that are mined for tellurium alone (Hoffmann et al., 2000).
Large quantities are mined as a part of base metal deposits
for copper, nickel and lead as well as gold, silver and plati-
num group metals. The recovery of tellurium, usually as
tellurides, is often incidental.
Most refined tellurium is recovered from anode slimes
produced during the copper refining stage (Backstrom,
2010 Mahmoudi et al., 2020 Schlesinger et al., 2011).
This is an inefficient process as only 4% of the tellurium
present in copper ore reports to the copper anodes, with
90% being rejected in the flotation stage (Josephson,
2016). The tellurium in copper ores is present as telluride
minerals with copper, lead, gold, silver and bismuth tel-
lurides being the most common (Makuei &Senanayake,
2018). If insitu leaching of copper ores is employed as the
primary stage instead of flotation, then there is no recovery
of tellurium to the anode slimes as the tellurium minerals
remain unleached in the ore (Davidson &Lakin, 1973).
The recovery of tellurium from direct mining accounts
for approximately 15% of world production (Anderson,
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
2018
2005
2000
1995
1985
1980
1975
1970
1932
RUBBER METALLURGICAL CHEMICALS/CATALYST PHOTORECEPTOR/THERMOELECTRIC SOLAR OTHER
Figure 1. Uses of tellurium (compiled from USGS sources (Anderson, 2022 George, 2012 Tyler, 1932))