1
24-082
Sulfide Tailings as Potential Secondary Sources of
Critical Minerals: Tellurium
Fardis Nakhaei
Missouri University of Science &Technology, Rolla,
MO, USA
Jose L. Corchado-Albelo
Missouri University of Science &Technology, Rolla,
MO, USA
Noelia Munoz-Garcia
Université de Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
Lana Alagha
Missouri University of Science &Technology, Rolla,
MO, USA
Michèle Heitz
Université de Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada.
ABSTRACT
Sulfide tailings from past and present mining activities are
important hosts of critical elements and precious metals.
This review paper presented a literature survey on the recov-
ery practices of some critical minerals containing Te from
sulfide tailings with a special focus on the physical benefi-
ciation and hydrometallurgical separation methods. Finally,
a conceptual framework and possible processing flowsheets
were proposed. The findings of this review will be useful for
the researchers in the field of geochemistry, mineral pro-
cessing, and metallurgy to evaluate the separation processes
for reprocessing of mine tailings for the recovery of critical
minerals.
INTRODUCTION
Tellurium (Te), with a concentration as low as 1–5 ppb
in the Earth’s crust, is even more scarce than Au, Ag, Pt,
and REEs [1]. Except for a standalone Te deposit in China,
[2], Te is typically found in association with other minerals
like pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite and usually
recovered as a byproduct of copper ore processing. Given
the increasing global demand for Te, its limited reserves,
and relatively low recovery, it has been classified as a critical
element in several countries [3–5]. Most of the Te produc-
tion occurs in China (61%), Japan (11%), Sweden (9%),
Russia (8%), and Canada (8%) [6,7]. Determining global
Te production precisely is challenging due to the incom-
plete reporting by companies and countries, but the world’s
current production for refined Te is estimated to be 500 to
550 tons per year [7–9].
Because of their outstanding thermal, optical, and
electrical characteristics, Te and Te-containing compounds
find broad applications across diverse industries. Over the
past decade, there has been a substantial global increase
in the production of cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin-film
solar cells, rising from negligible levels in the mid-2000s
to surpassing 6 gigawatts in 2020 alone, according to the
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (2022) [10].
This increase in CdTe production led to a corresponding
rise in Te demand, making up approximately 40% of global
Te usage and standing as its most substantial application
[11–13]. Te is also employed in various other industry
sectors including thermoelectric production (constituting
30% of global Te production), metallurgical alloys (15%),
color ceramics and glass fibers (10%), and heat-resistant
rubber (5%) [14,15].
The escalating worldwide demand for Te in recent
years has led to increased focus on recovering tellurium
from ores, tailings, and metallurgical by-products [16,17].
According to Ojebuoboh’s research [18], about 90% of Te
in ores is typically lost to tailings during the concentration
processes of copper-containing sulfide minerals at mining
24-082
Sulfide Tailings as Potential Secondary Sources of
Critical Minerals: Tellurium
Fardis Nakhaei
Missouri University of Science &Technology, Rolla,
MO, USA
Jose L. Corchado-Albelo
Missouri University of Science &Technology, Rolla,
MO, USA
Noelia Munoz-Garcia
Université de Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
Lana Alagha
Missouri University of Science &Technology, Rolla,
MO, USA
Michèle Heitz
Université de Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada.
ABSTRACT
Sulfide tailings from past and present mining activities are
important hosts of critical elements and precious metals.
This review paper presented a literature survey on the recov-
ery practices of some critical minerals containing Te from
sulfide tailings with a special focus on the physical benefi-
ciation and hydrometallurgical separation methods. Finally,
a conceptual framework and possible processing flowsheets
were proposed. The findings of this review will be useful for
the researchers in the field of geochemistry, mineral pro-
cessing, and metallurgy to evaluate the separation processes
for reprocessing of mine tailings for the recovery of critical
minerals.
INTRODUCTION
Tellurium (Te), with a concentration as low as 1–5 ppb
in the Earth’s crust, is even more scarce than Au, Ag, Pt,
and REEs [1]. Except for a standalone Te deposit in China,
[2], Te is typically found in association with other minerals
like pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite and usually
recovered as a byproduct of copper ore processing. Given
the increasing global demand for Te, its limited reserves,
and relatively low recovery, it has been classified as a critical
element in several countries [3–5]. Most of the Te produc-
tion occurs in China (61%), Japan (11%), Sweden (9%),
Russia (8%), and Canada (8%) [6,7]. Determining global
Te production precisely is challenging due to the incom-
plete reporting by companies and countries, but the world’s
current production for refined Te is estimated to be 500 to
550 tons per year [7–9].
Because of their outstanding thermal, optical, and
electrical characteristics, Te and Te-containing compounds
find broad applications across diverse industries. Over the
past decade, there has been a substantial global increase
in the production of cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin-film
solar cells, rising from negligible levels in the mid-2000s
to surpassing 6 gigawatts in 2020 alone, according to the
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (2022) [10].
This increase in CdTe production led to a corresponding
rise in Te demand, making up approximately 40% of global
Te usage and standing as its most substantial application
[11–13]. Te is also employed in various other industry
sectors including thermoelectric production (constituting
30% of global Te production), metallurgical alloys (15%),
color ceramics and glass fibers (10%), and heat-resistant
rubber (5%) [14,15].
The escalating worldwide demand for Te in recent
years has led to increased focus on recovering tellurium
from ores, tailings, and metallurgical by-products [16,17].
According to Ojebuoboh’s research [18], about 90% of Te
in ores is typically lost to tailings during the concentration
processes of copper-containing sulfide minerals at mining