8
These findings suggest that competency-based train-
ing (CBT) which focuses on outcomes rather than training
time and performance over knowledge could be one effec-
tive solution for improving operator safety [23]. Since com-
petencies are observable, critical knowledge and skills could
be assessed through observation on the job in a variety of
conditions. This approach could also attenuate the effects
of differences in training content and technique that have
been reported across instructors and sites [13] by making
successful performance of a set of critical skills a require-
ment before allowing operators to drive on their own. This
approach is consistent with interviewee suggestions that
more hands-on training in various conditions could enable
the development of a better understanding of how the
truck will respond.
Situational Awareness
Beyond domain-specific knowledge, the goal of maintain-
ing situational awareness requires “the ability to perceive
elements in the environment, comprehend their meaning,
and project their status in the future” [24]. This includes
decisions related to identifying and acting on changing
conditions such as weather, road conditions, or other driv-
ers, and understanding the big picture beyond the mechan-
ics and capabilities of the trucks themselves. Operators
often mentioned engaging in decisions and actions because
they noticed and identified something unusual, understood
what was about to happen, and chose an action or plan
they believed would bring about the outcome they wanted.
Loss of situational awareness has also been identified as
a contributing factor to many haul truck accidents [12].
To maintain situational awareness and understand the big
picture during challenging situations, operators need to be
highly attentive to cues and respond effectively to unfolding
events. They should ask themselves questions such as: “Did
something change?” or “Do I know where everyone/every-
thing is?” and “What does all of this mean?” Furthermore,
this skill is linked to successful performance in that actions
need to be taken immediately – often within seconds.
There might not be time to, for example, use the radio to
inquire about other traffic or warn other drivers about what
is transpiring. Several operators mentioned watching out
for developing hazards. As noted during one participant’s
account, “if you notice that [a] berm is not the same height
as when you were just back there at your last load, that’s an
indication that something’s going on underneath the dump
that we can’t see.”
Training specific to situational awareness may also be a
potential strategy to enable haul truck operators to main-
tain awareness about what is occurring around them. The
CDM data set suggests that training should include teach-
ing operators to identify potential hazards, anticipate risks,
and make informed decisions based on their observations.
Another solution that was discussed during the interviews
was decision support technologies such as collision warning
systems that help operators better identify objects, people,
or vehicles near a haul truck. One operator mentioned that
they specifically requested a camera for their haul truck to
help eliminate blind spots. Operators generally agreed that
these technologies may be able to help avoid serious inci-
dents but should not be relied upon exclusively.
Safety First
Another prevalent theme was the importance of putting
safety first and having a positive safety culture, which has
been defined as “a set of safety-related attitudes, beliefs, and
practices shared between employees, supervisors, and man-
agers within an organization” [25]. Operators frequently
discussed their decisions and actions in the context of
prioritizing safety (or not). Many cited their adherence to
safety protocols, a personal sense of what felt safe, a desire
to protect others, a wish to be seen as safety-conscious,
or simply following safety habits. Some operators even
took individual measures to enhance safety. For instance,
one operator said, “I got backup cameras…two of them.
I had to install them myself, but I did.” However, there
were also mentions of risky decisions and actions arising
from a lack of emphasis on safety. Some operators pointed
to the absence of safety rules or training to guide them,
while others felt that making a safer decision might lead
to negative perceptions by peers or employers. One haul
truck operator who was new to the worksite reported not
shutting down an unsafe road out of concern for what oth-
ers might think. This reluctance on the part of the operator
was explained this way: “I hate to say this, I wouldn’t say
repercussion from my coworkers, but I guess it’d be like the
peer pressure. You’re feeling, you know, inadequate to do
that” In retrospect, many operators suggested that if they
had stopped to consider “safety first” over just “getting it
done,” some of these incidents might have been avoided
altogether.
Related to safety culture, it is important to note that
communication goals including “effective communication”
and “share your stories” were coded separately. Though
these are also related to safety culture, researchers wanted to
explicitly capture effective and ineffective communication
decisions and examine them in isolation. While not a focus
of this paper, the importance of effective communication,
often inspired by a strong safety culture, is also critically
important.
These findings suggest that competency-based train-
ing (CBT) which focuses on outcomes rather than training
time and performance over knowledge could be one effec-
tive solution for improving operator safety [23]. Since com-
petencies are observable, critical knowledge and skills could
be assessed through observation on the job in a variety of
conditions. This approach could also attenuate the effects
of differences in training content and technique that have
been reported across instructors and sites [13] by making
successful performance of a set of critical skills a require-
ment before allowing operators to drive on their own. This
approach is consistent with interviewee suggestions that
more hands-on training in various conditions could enable
the development of a better understanding of how the
truck will respond.
Situational Awareness
Beyond domain-specific knowledge, the goal of maintain-
ing situational awareness requires “the ability to perceive
elements in the environment, comprehend their meaning,
and project their status in the future” [24]. This includes
decisions related to identifying and acting on changing
conditions such as weather, road conditions, or other driv-
ers, and understanding the big picture beyond the mechan-
ics and capabilities of the trucks themselves. Operators
often mentioned engaging in decisions and actions because
they noticed and identified something unusual, understood
what was about to happen, and chose an action or plan
they believed would bring about the outcome they wanted.
Loss of situational awareness has also been identified as
a contributing factor to many haul truck accidents [12].
To maintain situational awareness and understand the big
picture during challenging situations, operators need to be
highly attentive to cues and respond effectively to unfolding
events. They should ask themselves questions such as: “Did
something change?” or “Do I know where everyone/every-
thing is?” and “What does all of this mean?” Furthermore,
this skill is linked to successful performance in that actions
need to be taken immediately – often within seconds.
There might not be time to, for example, use the radio to
inquire about other traffic or warn other drivers about what
is transpiring. Several operators mentioned watching out
for developing hazards. As noted during one participant’s
account, “if you notice that [a] berm is not the same height
as when you were just back there at your last load, that’s an
indication that something’s going on underneath the dump
that we can’t see.”
Training specific to situational awareness may also be a
potential strategy to enable haul truck operators to main-
tain awareness about what is occurring around them. The
CDM data set suggests that training should include teach-
ing operators to identify potential hazards, anticipate risks,
and make informed decisions based on their observations.
Another solution that was discussed during the interviews
was decision support technologies such as collision warning
systems that help operators better identify objects, people,
or vehicles near a haul truck. One operator mentioned that
they specifically requested a camera for their haul truck to
help eliminate blind spots. Operators generally agreed that
these technologies may be able to help avoid serious inci-
dents but should not be relied upon exclusively.
Safety First
Another prevalent theme was the importance of putting
safety first and having a positive safety culture, which has
been defined as “a set of safety-related attitudes, beliefs, and
practices shared between employees, supervisors, and man-
agers within an organization” [25]. Operators frequently
discussed their decisions and actions in the context of
prioritizing safety (or not). Many cited their adherence to
safety protocols, a personal sense of what felt safe, a desire
to protect others, a wish to be seen as safety-conscious,
or simply following safety habits. Some operators even
took individual measures to enhance safety. For instance,
one operator said, “I got backup cameras…two of them.
I had to install them myself, but I did.” However, there
were also mentions of risky decisions and actions arising
from a lack of emphasis on safety. Some operators pointed
to the absence of safety rules or training to guide them,
while others felt that making a safer decision might lead
to negative perceptions by peers or employers. One haul
truck operator who was new to the worksite reported not
shutting down an unsafe road out of concern for what oth-
ers might think. This reluctance on the part of the operator
was explained this way: “I hate to say this, I wouldn’t say
repercussion from my coworkers, but I guess it’d be like the
peer pressure. You’re feeling, you know, inadequate to do
that” In retrospect, many operators suggested that if they
had stopped to consider “safety first” over just “getting it
done,” some of these incidents might have been avoided
altogether.
Related to safety culture, it is important to note that
communication goals including “effective communication”
and “share your stories” were coded separately. Though
these are also related to safety culture, researchers wanted to
explicitly capture effective and ineffective communication
decisions and examine them in isolation. While not a focus
of this paper, the importance of effective communication,
often inspired by a strong safety culture, is also critically
important.