4
to vibration that represented 100,000 miles of vehicle life
according to either SAE J2380 or the authors’ own test pro-
file as developed by Hooper and Marco [23]. Individual
cells were charged to 25%, 50%, or 75% SOC. For each
profile, a cell was subjected to vibration in one direction—
X, Y, or Z. All testing was conducted at a fixed temperature
of 21°C. Both vibration profiles resulted in changes in elec-
trical performance and mechanical properties. The electri-
cal performance of the cells subjected to the SAE J2380
profile had the most degradation at 75% SOC, while the
cells subjected to the author’s test profile had the most deg-
radation at 25% SOC.
In a similar study, Hooper et al. [27] investigated the
effect of cell orientation on degradation of nickel-cobalt-
aluminum-oxide (NCA) 18650 cells subjected to road-
induced vibration using SAE J2380 vibration profiles. For
this study, the NCA cells were charged to 75% SOC and all
tests were conducted at 21°C. The authors did not observe
significant electrical or mechanical degradation.
Lang and Kjell [28] compared triaxial vibration
data measured in an EV to several proposed vibration
test standards: IEC 62660-2, ISO 12405-1, SAE J2380,
SANDIA2005-3123, ECE R100-2, and UN38.3. The
measured vibration levels were highest below 100 Hz.
Above 1 kHz, the vibration levels were low. Between 200
Hz and 1 kHz, the vibration levels were lower than the
sub-100 Hz levels but high enough to be important. The
vibrations in all three directions had similar levels, but the
frequency spectra of each direction exhibited peaks at dif-
ferent frequencies due to component resonances. When
comparing measured vibration to the vibration specified in
the standards, the authors found that “Overall, these results
are not consistent with existing standards.” The main issues
are that most of the standards do not go low enough in
frequency, as IEC 62660-2, ISO 12405-1, SAE J2380,
and SANDIA2005-3123 begin at 10 Hz. Further, most of
the standards do not test at frequencies above 200 Hz as
SAEJ2380, SANDIA2005-3123, and UN 38.3 stop at 200
Hz, and ECE R100 stops at only 50 Hz.
Ruiza et al. [29] reviewed 12 vehicle LIB standards
and regulations that deal with mechanical, electrical, envi-
ronmental, and chemical abuse. Mechanical abuse tests
include drop, mechanical shock, vibration, penetration,
immersion, crush/crash, and rollover. Depending on the
standard or regulation, the mechanical tests can be applied
to LIB cells, modules, or packs, and some apply to the
whole vehicle. Pass/fail conditions for individual tests are
specified as no fire, no explosion, no rupture, and no leak-
age. Only the drop, mechanical shock, and vibration tests
will be discussed here. Environmental tests include thermal
stability, thermal shock and cycling, overheating, extreme
cold temperature, and fire exposure. Only the extreme cold
temperature test will be discussed here.
Drop tests are recommended to guard against damage
during battery removal or installation [29]. The standards/
regulations specify battery pack drop tests with heights
from 1 m to 10 m and surfaces that include 20-mm-thick
hardwood floor, concrete floor, flat surface, and a cylindri-
cal steel object with a 150-mm radius. The SOC for the
drop tests ranges from 80% to 100%, depending on the
standard/regulation.
Mechanical shock tests subject LIBs to impulsive load-
ing that results from events such as hitting a pothole with
a vehicle. The mechanical shock tests vary significantly
amongst the standards/regulations [29]. For mechanical
shock tests applied to cells, modules, or packs, the stan-
dards/regulations specify peak acceleration levels from 20 g
to 150 g with durations from 6 ms to 110 ms. During these
tests, the SOC is 50%, 80%, or 100%, depending on the
standard or regulation. Each standard/regulation has differ-
ent requirements with respect to the direction of the shock.
Some standards apply shocks in all three axes, while some
require only one or two directions.
Vibration tests are applied to cells, modules, or packs
using either sinusoidal inputs to search for resonances or
random input to simulate road-induced vibration during
operation [29]. Depending on the standard/regulation, the
lowest vibration frequency is 5 Hz, 7 Hz, or 10 Hz and the
highest vibration frequency is 50 Hz, 55 Hz, 150 Hz, 190
Hz, 200 Hz, or 2 kHz. Each standard/regulation specifies
vibration in either the vertical direction, the vertical and
horizontal directions, or all three directions. The SOC for
vibration testing is one of either 20%, 50%, 60%, 80%,
95%, or 100%, depending on the standard/regulation. Two
of the standards/regulations use a different SOC for each
direction of vibration.
Each of the standards/regulations includes immersion
tests to examine the effect of flooding [29]. Immersion tests
consist of immersing a cell, module, or pack in a 25°C salt-
water bath. Depending on the standard/regulation, the SOC
is specified as 50%, 80%, 95%–100%, or maximum operat-
ing SOC. Of the standards/regulations, two specify the fluid
as “clear or salty water” and “nominal composition of sea
water,” one calls for 0.6 M sodium chloride, and two specify
5% sodium chloride by weight. The immersion time varies
from 1 to 2 hours or until “visible reactions have stopped.”
Immersion tests could be particularly important in
mining applications. Considering that some mines have
to vibration that represented 100,000 miles of vehicle life
according to either SAE J2380 or the authors’ own test pro-
file as developed by Hooper and Marco [23]. Individual
cells were charged to 25%, 50%, or 75% SOC. For each
profile, a cell was subjected to vibration in one direction—
X, Y, or Z. All testing was conducted at a fixed temperature
of 21°C. Both vibration profiles resulted in changes in elec-
trical performance and mechanical properties. The electri-
cal performance of the cells subjected to the SAE J2380
profile had the most degradation at 75% SOC, while the
cells subjected to the author’s test profile had the most deg-
radation at 25% SOC.
In a similar study, Hooper et al. [27] investigated the
effect of cell orientation on degradation of nickel-cobalt-
aluminum-oxide (NCA) 18650 cells subjected to road-
induced vibration using SAE J2380 vibration profiles. For
this study, the NCA cells were charged to 75% SOC and all
tests were conducted at 21°C. The authors did not observe
significant electrical or mechanical degradation.
Lang and Kjell [28] compared triaxial vibration
data measured in an EV to several proposed vibration
test standards: IEC 62660-2, ISO 12405-1, SAE J2380,
SANDIA2005-3123, ECE R100-2, and UN38.3. The
measured vibration levels were highest below 100 Hz.
Above 1 kHz, the vibration levels were low. Between 200
Hz and 1 kHz, the vibration levels were lower than the
sub-100 Hz levels but high enough to be important. The
vibrations in all three directions had similar levels, but the
frequency spectra of each direction exhibited peaks at dif-
ferent frequencies due to component resonances. When
comparing measured vibration to the vibration specified in
the standards, the authors found that “Overall, these results
are not consistent with existing standards.” The main issues
are that most of the standards do not go low enough in
frequency, as IEC 62660-2, ISO 12405-1, SAE J2380,
and SANDIA2005-3123 begin at 10 Hz. Further, most of
the standards do not test at frequencies above 200 Hz as
SAEJ2380, SANDIA2005-3123, and UN 38.3 stop at 200
Hz, and ECE R100 stops at only 50 Hz.
Ruiza et al. [29] reviewed 12 vehicle LIB standards
and regulations that deal with mechanical, electrical, envi-
ronmental, and chemical abuse. Mechanical abuse tests
include drop, mechanical shock, vibration, penetration,
immersion, crush/crash, and rollover. Depending on the
standard or regulation, the mechanical tests can be applied
to LIB cells, modules, or packs, and some apply to the
whole vehicle. Pass/fail conditions for individual tests are
specified as no fire, no explosion, no rupture, and no leak-
age. Only the drop, mechanical shock, and vibration tests
will be discussed here. Environmental tests include thermal
stability, thermal shock and cycling, overheating, extreme
cold temperature, and fire exposure. Only the extreme cold
temperature test will be discussed here.
Drop tests are recommended to guard against damage
during battery removal or installation [29]. The standards/
regulations specify battery pack drop tests with heights
from 1 m to 10 m and surfaces that include 20-mm-thick
hardwood floor, concrete floor, flat surface, and a cylindri-
cal steel object with a 150-mm radius. The SOC for the
drop tests ranges from 80% to 100%, depending on the
standard/regulation.
Mechanical shock tests subject LIBs to impulsive load-
ing that results from events such as hitting a pothole with
a vehicle. The mechanical shock tests vary significantly
amongst the standards/regulations [29]. For mechanical
shock tests applied to cells, modules, or packs, the stan-
dards/regulations specify peak acceleration levels from 20 g
to 150 g with durations from 6 ms to 110 ms. During these
tests, the SOC is 50%, 80%, or 100%, depending on the
standard or regulation. Each standard/regulation has differ-
ent requirements with respect to the direction of the shock.
Some standards apply shocks in all three axes, while some
require only one or two directions.
Vibration tests are applied to cells, modules, or packs
using either sinusoidal inputs to search for resonances or
random input to simulate road-induced vibration during
operation [29]. Depending on the standard/regulation, the
lowest vibration frequency is 5 Hz, 7 Hz, or 10 Hz and the
highest vibration frequency is 50 Hz, 55 Hz, 150 Hz, 190
Hz, 200 Hz, or 2 kHz. Each standard/regulation specifies
vibration in either the vertical direction, the vertical and
horizontal directions, or all three directions. The SOC for
vibration testing is one of either 20%, 50%, 60%, 80%,
95%, or 100%, depending on the standard/regulation. Two
of the standards/regulations use a different SOC for each
direction of vibration.
Each of the standards/regulations includes immersion
tests to examine the effect of flooding [29]. Immersion tests
consist of immersing a cell, module, or pack in a 25°C salt-
water bath. Depending on the standard/regulation, the SOC
is specified as 50%, 80%, 95%–100%, or maximum operat-
ing SOC. Of the standards/regulations, two specify the fluid
as “clear or salty water” and “nominal composition of sea
water,” one calls for 0.6 M sodium chloride, and two specify
5% sodium chloride by weight. The immersion time varies
from 1 to 2 hours or until “visible reactions have stopped.”
Immersion tests could be particularly important in
mining applications. Considering that some mines have