2
lead-acid batteries for LIBs. Therefore, research on imple-
menting LIBs on these vehicles is warranted. This paper will
describe the effects of mine environmental conditions on
LIBs and outline a new NIOSH research project examining
the environmental susceptibility of MUV and RTM LIBs.
LITHIUM-ION BATTERY BACKGROUND
Lithium-ion Battery Chemistries
Lithium-ion battery is an umbrella term for a group of
batteries with components that vary in chemical composi-
tion. Most LIBs are named by the elemental makeup of
their cathode, while others are named using the makeup
of their anode. During discharge, the anode releases stored
lithium ions and the cathode accepts lithium ions [11].
The cathode is normally made up of a lithium metal oxide
such as lithium-nickel-manganese-cobalt-oxide (NMC) or
a lithium metal phosphate such as lithium-iron-phosphate
(LFP) [12]. The anode is typically made of carbon in the
form of graphene or graphite. LFP cells are used nearly
exclusively with a carbon-based anode material. In some
cases, the anode is made with lithium titanate or lithium-
titanium-oxide (LTO). NMC, LFP, and LTO LIBs are the
most common chemistries in mining battery-electric vehi-
cles (BEVs)[13].
Before selecting the types of LIB cells to use, BEV
manufacturers have to consider several design parameters:
energy density requirements, safe operating temperatures,
cost/capacity ($/Wh), unit weight, and others. NMC cells
have high specific energy and voltage and low cost per kWh.
LFP cells have increased safety and better cycling charac-
teristics, but lower specific energy and slightly higher cost
per kWh. LTO cells also offer increased safety and better
cycling characteristics along with very fast charging times
[12]. However, LTO cells have lower specific energy and
higher overall cost. To keep the voltage within a practical
range, LTO cells are normally paired with a lithium-metal-
oxide cathode.
Lithium-Ion Battery Form Factors
LIBs can be categorized into four form factors or shapes:
coin, cylindrical, prismatic, and pouch. Coin batteries are
not commonly used in BEVs. Cylindrical, prismatic, or
pouch cells are used to form BEV LIB modules by wiring
numerous cells in series, parallel, or a combination of series
and parallel. LIB packs are built using multiple modules.
Large BEV LIB packs can weigh a few thousand pounds.
Cylindrical cells are popular because they are well-
suited to automated manufacturing and are available in
standard sizes, both of which bring down manufacturing
costs. The most common cylindrical cell is the 18650 cell
that is 18 mm in diameter and 65 mm in length. Cylindrical
cells are also available in larger cells, such as 22650 and
21700 cells. The cylindrical shape provides mechanical
stability and helps resist deformation. In some cylindrical
cells, built-in safety vents or gaskets can be used to prevent
high internal pressures. Cylindrical cells have lower pack-
ing density than other cell types but allow easier thermal
management [14].
Prismatic cells are built by layering or folding the cath-
ode, separator, and anode, and compressing them into a
firm enclosure, which offers mechanical stability. The fold-
ing of the layers can lead to stresses at the corners. The size
and shape of prismatic cells are highly customizable and
allow for a thinner battery pack, if needed. Prismatic cells
have higher packing efficiencies but cost more, and they
have thermal management challenges [15].
Pouch cells allow for a simple, low-cost construction by
placing the battery components in a flexible foil pouch. This
thin exterior allows for the lowest weight and highest pack-
ing efficiency, but this reduces protection from mechani-
cal deformation, punctures, etc. Another drawback is that
pouch cells are prone to swelling [16].
LITHIUM-ION BATTERY ENVIRONMENT-
RELATED RESEARCH, STANDARDS, AND
REGULATIONS
Limited research has been published regarding environ-
mental effects on LIBs. Some researchers have examined
the effects of temperature on LIB aging and dendrite
growth, while others have studied the effects of mechani-
cal shock and vibration on LIBs. These mechanical shock
and vibration studies have examined performance degrada-
tion, mechanical damage, or change in dynamic response.
Dendrite growth coupled with mechanical shock and vibra-
tion could result in an internal short circuit if dendrites
pierce an LIB’s separator. Numerous standards exist that
involve LIB environmental testing. These standards cover
testing such as mechanical shock, vibration, extreme tem-
peratures, thermal shock, humidity, and immersion. Several
publications on temperature effects, mechanical shock and
vibration, and standards are discussed below.
Waldmann et al. [17] studied temperature-related
aging of 18650 LIBs across a temperature range of -20°C
to 70°C. The LIBs were cycled at a charge/discharge rate of
1C. Ageing followed an Arrhenius plot with 25°C divid-
ing ageing into two regions. Below 25°C, the ageing rate
increased with decreasing temperature and was caused by
lithium plating during charging. Above 25°C, the ageing
lead-acid batteries for LIBs. Therefore, research on imple-
menting LIBs on these vehicles is warranted. This paper will
describe the effects of mine environmental conditions on
LIBs and outline a new NIOSH research project examining
the environmental susceptibility of MUV and RTM LIBs.
LITHIUM-ION BATTERY BACKGROUND
Lithium-ion Battery Chemistries
Lithium-ion battery is an umbrella term for a group of
batteries with components that vary in chemical composi-
tion. Most LIBs are named by the elemental makeup of
their cathode, while others are named using the makeup
of their anode. During discharge, the anode releases stored
lithium ions and the cathode accepts lithium ions [11].
The cathode is normally made up of a lithium metal oxide
such as lithium-nickel-manganese-cobalt-oxide (NMC) or
a lithium metal phosphate such as lithium-iron-phosphate
(LFP) [12]. The anode is typically made of carbon in the
form of graphene or graphite. LFP cells are used nearly
exclusively with a carbon-based anode material. In some
cases, the anode is made with lithium titanate or lithium-
titanium-oxide (LTO). NMC, LFP, and LTO LIBs are the
most common chemistries in mining battery-electric vehi-
cles (BEVs)[13].
Before selecting the types of LIB cells to use, BEV
manufacturers have to consider several design parameters:
energy density requirements, safe operating temperatures,
cost/capacity ($/Wh), unit weight, and others. NMC cells
have high specific energy and voltage and low cost per kWh.
LFP cells have increased safety and better cycling charac-
teristics, but lower specific energy and slightly higher cost
per kWh. LTO cells also offer increased safety and better
cycling characteristics along with very fast charging times
[12]. However, LTO cells have lower specific energy and
higher overall cost. To keep the voltage within a practical
range, LTO cells are normally paired with a lithium-metal-
oxide cathode.
Lithium-Ion Battery Form Factors
LIBs can be categorized into four form factors or shapes:
coin, cylindrical, prismatic, and pouch. Coin batteries are
not commonly used in BEVs. Cylindrical, prismatic, or
pouch cells are used to form BEV LIB modules by wiring
numerous cells in series, parallel, or a combination of series
and parallel. LIB packs are built using multiple modules.
Large BEV LIB packs can weigh a few thousand pounds.
Cylindrical cells are popular because they are well-
suited to automated manufacturing and are available in
standard sizes, both of which bring down manufacturing
costs. The most common cylindrical cell is the 18650 cell
that is 18 mm in diameter and 65 mm in length. Cylindrical
cells are also available in larger cells, such as 22650 and
21700 cells. The cylindrical shape provides mechanical
stability and helps resist deformation. In some cylindrical
cells, built-in safety vents or gaskets can be used to prevent
high internal pressures. Cylindrical cells have lower pack-
ing density than other cell types but allow easier thermal
management [14].
Prismatic cells are built by layering or folding the cath-
ode, separator, and anode, and compressing them into a
firm enclosure, which offers mechanical stability. The fold-
ing of the layers can lead to stresses at the corners. The size
and shape of prismatic cells are highly customizable and
allow for a thinner battery pack, if needed. Prismatic cells
have higher packing efficiencies but cost more, and they
have thermal management challenges [15].
Pouch cells allow for a simple, low-cost construction by
placing the battery components in a flexible foil pouch. This
thin exterior allows for the lowest weight and highest pack-
ing efficiency, but this reduces protection from mechani-
cal deformation, punctures, etc. Another drawback is that
pouch cells are prone to swelling [16].
LITHIUM-ION BATTERY ENVIRONMENT-
RELATED RESEARCH, STANDARDS, AND
REGULATIONS
Limited research has been published regarding environ-
mental effects on LIBs. Some researchers have examined
the effects of temperature on LIB aging and dendrite
growth, while others have studied the effects of mechani-
cal shock and vibration on LIBs. These mechanical shock
and vibration studies have examined performance degrada-
tion, mechanical damage, or change in dynamic response.
Dendrite growth coupled with mechanical shock and vibra-
tion could result in an internal short circuit if dendrites
pierce an LIB’s separator. Numerous standards exist that
involve LIB environmental testing. These standards cover
testing such as mechanical shock, vibration, extreme tem-
peratures, thermal shock, humidity, and immersion. Several
publications on temperature effects, mechanical shock and
vibration, and standards are discussed below.
Waldmann et al. [17] studied temperature-related
aging of 18650 LIBs across a temperature range of -20°C
to 70°C. The LIBs were cycled at a charge/discharge rate of
1C. Ageing followed an Arrhenius plot with 25°C divid-
ing ageing into two regions. Below 25°C, the ageing rate
increased with decreasing temperature and was caused by
lithium plating during charging. Above 25°C, the ageing